Common Research Elements

Some common elements of educational research methodology include the focusing on a research problem, making a hypothesis, identifying the variables, locating and reviewing related literature, and the use of educational measures.

Research questions, sampling and levels of measurement can be applied to special education research to identify effective instructional methods and program practices. This can be done by finding a problem or instructional method to address then developing a broad question to guide the research Rumrill, Cook, and Wiley, 2011). Sampling is used to represent the population to which the findings will be generalized. In special education this enables the researcher to work with a manageable amount of subjects. Levels of measurement are used to identify where the dependent variables lie. For example, the levels of achievement in the intervention and the amount of time administered are documented and used to determine the effects and outcomes.

In the classroom setting, teachers  can use this information to determine the benefits of an intervention that is being used. This can be done by documenting the levels of achievement acquired by students who are in the intervention group with those in a group not using it. This is called  the control group. This information can then be used to make changes in the intervention program as needed.

Rumrill, P, Cook, B., & Wiley, A. (2011). Research in special education: designs, methods, and applications. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, LTD.

What is “Evidence-Based Practice”?

            “Evidence-based practice” (EBP) consists of strategies and processes that are proven to be effective with the population for which they are tested. The interpretation of EBP can vary according to the disability category because of the variability of student limitations and abilities. According to Burns and Ysseldyke (2009), most conversations regarding EBP relates to education in general. Not enough is being done to close the research-to-practice gap in special education.

Research to determine the effectiveness of educational practices for Students with Disabilities may be lack reliability because the need for specific methodologies that require large amounts of participants. Since the prevalence of certain disabilities may be low, it would be difficult to conduct the study effectively (Odom, Brantlinger, Gersten, Horner, Thompson, and Marris, 2005).

The questions asked in research studies to determine the effectiveness of special education practices cannot be simple (Odom, et al. 2005). There are specific considerations to include. The individual or group’s disabilities, age group, grade level, limitations, interests, language abilities and other factors such as the context must be considered in order to determine if the educational practice is effective. For example, a Varied Exceptionalities (VE) resource classroom may contain students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD), and Emotional and Behavioral Disability EBD). A particular program may have a different degree of effectiveness for one student than for the other. Therefore, the specialized instructional practices may be evidence-based, but should be evaluated differently according to the students it is meant to support.

Burns, M. K., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (2009). Reported Prevalence of Evidence-Based Instructional Practices in Special Education. Journal of Special Education, 43(1), 3–11.

Odom, S., Brantlinger, E., Gersten, R., Horner, R., Thompson, B., and Harris, K. (2005). Research in Special Education: Scientific Methods and Evidence-Based Practices. Council for Exceptional Children, 71(2), 137–148

Receptive Communication Skills

Students with difficulties in the area of receptive language reveal the need for extensive supports. It is important that he is taught strategies that will help him to be successful in following school behavior requirements reach academic expectations, and have positive social relationships.

The student needs assistance with his difficulty understanding the daily schedule. He will benefit from the use of a Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) daily schedule formatted for his specific needs. Cihak (2010) describes an important benefit of PECS as he compared it to another form of visual communication support in his experimental study. As a result of a structured environment, the student’s academic progress may also be positively affected. This is an evidence based strategy as there have been numerous studies done to investigate its effectiveness with students who have receptive language deficits. It was developed by Dr. Andy Bondy, a Speech/Language Pathologist in 1985 and is based on B. F. Skinner’s publication on Verbal Behavior.

Another type of communication support for individuals with language impairments is called Social Stories. If tshe student lacks compliance in the area of classroom expectations this reveals his need for this type of support. According to Schneider & Goldstein (2009), Social Stories supports students by teaching them the expected behaviors and supporting them as they work to develop positive habits.

Both of the above mentioned strategies have been used with adolescent individuals with language deficiencies, therefore would be effective in supporting students with receptive communication skill deficits as they gain effective communication skills.

Cihak, D. (2010). Comparing pictorial and video modeling activity schedules during transistions for students with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 433-441. Retrieved from www.library.waldenu.edu

 Schneider, N. & Goldstein, H. (2009). Social stories improve the on-task behavior of children with language impairment. Journal of Early Intervention, 31, 250-264.Retrieved from www.library.waldenu.edu

Teaching Beginning Reading Skill vs. Teaching Reading Comprehension

There are significant differences between teaching beginning reading skills and teaching reading for comprehension. Beginning reading skills include the basic skills needed in order to learn how to read. Students need to learn that letters represent sounds, sounds are blended to make words, and words come together to make sentences. Reading comprehension skills include the more complex strategies that lead to understanding what is read. Students need to learn that the ultimate reason for reading is comprehension and it takes development of specific strategies to successfully interact with text.

In teaching beginning reading skills to students with disabilities our ultimate goal is to equip them with the prerequisites that are necessary to engage and succeed in reading comprehension. It is important to be guided by the essential big ideas and match the students’ learning needs with the instruction. Coyne, Kame’enui, and Carnine (2011) reported that learning to read in the primary grades carry significant benefits for cognitive development and school success. The groundwork is laid for successfully engaging in a variety of texts. The big ideas that need to be taught are phonological awareness, alphabetic principle, and fluency. Deliberate and conspicuous strategies must be taught to help students become independent readers. This begins with choosing or developing adjusting the resources needed for teaching the specific skills. Scaffolding, connecting known skills with more complex skills, and providing ample review are also essential parts of the teaching process.

Teaching reading for content requires that the beginning reading skills be used to facilitate comprehension. Once students master the basic reading skills, they can be taught specialized strategies that will strengthen their reading comprehension abilities. Strategies should be taught to support readers before, during, and after reading. Some of the strategies that should be taught for use before reading are to review vocabulary words using mind mapping, identifying text structure, and making predictions about the theme after previewing the text. Some strategies for use during reading are questioning, identifying main ideas of paragraphs, and gauging comprehension to fix as needed (Berkeley, Scruggs, and Mastropieri, 2009). Finally, students should be taught strategies to use after reading as a part of good reading habits. These strategies include summarizing, retelling, and evaluating.

Each strategy should be taught explicitly by introducing the steps and scaffolding for retention. Offering opportunities for judicious review will solidify the strategies and help develop them as part of a repertoire of good reading habits. These reading instructional strategies were outlined in the study conducted by Graves, Brandon, Duesbery, McIntosh, and Pyle (2011), Using the criteria for research-based practices, it was determined that the strategies detailed in this study work to support students in becoming strategic, successful readers.

Coyne, M., Kame’enui, E., and Carnine, D. (2011). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Berkeley, S., Scruggs, T., and Mastropieri, M. (2010). Reading comprehension instruction for students with learning disabilities, 1995 – 2006: A meta-analysis. Hammill Institute on Disabilities. Retrieved from http://rse.sagepub.com/content/31/6/423

Graves, A., Brandon, R., Duesbery, L., McIntosh, A., and Pyle, N. (2011). The effects of tier 2 literacy instruction in sixth grade: Toward the development of a response-to-intervention model in middle school. Learning Disability Quarterly. 34(1), 73-86. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org

Leading Effective Specialized Instruction

To implement and maintain effective specialized instruction at the school and district levels leaders must develop and organizational system of information dissemination and supports for educators and the community. This system should include a multidisciplinary team of professionals with expertise in their fields. Initial and ongoing training should be provided for teachers and the community (Renshaw, T., Young, K, Caldarlla, P, and Christensen, L., 2008).

At the school level training should be provided for teachers and other personnel who are in contact with the students. Professional development opportunities should be planned and executed on an ongoing basis. For example, if specific students require the use of incidental teaching, specific training in this method should be given to personnel who will interact with the student. Procedures should also be in place for the school as a whole in order to promote uniformity. This supports students in their compliance efforts. Data-based decision making, student monitoring, the referral system and dissemination of information are some examples of procedures to be developed (Sugai, G., and Horner, R., 2008).

At the district level, administrators should develop and manage dissemination of information to schools and training initiatives which include monitoring and reporting procedures.

Renshaw, T., Young, K, Caldarlla, P, and Christensen, L.  (2008). Can school-wide positive behavior support be an evidence-based practice? Retrieved from www.library.waldenu.edu

Sugai, G., and Horner, R. (2008). What we know and need to know about preventing problem behavior in schools. 16 (2), 76-77. Retrieved from www.library.waldenu.edu

Looking into Classrooms

I observed a 5^th grade mathematics inclusive classroom that housed five students with disabilities. One student with Orthopedic Impairment (OI) and Specific Learning Disability (SLD), two with SLD, and two with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) were members of this class. The teacher had the common challenge of reaching each student at their instructional level. Some of the students, including those without diagnosed learning disabilities, had motivation and behavioral challenges in addition to academic challenges.

The instructional approaches that were used in this classroom were partly aligned with evidence-based research for teaching mathematics. The teacher began instruction after a short review of the previous day’s concept given in the form of problems on the board.  Before beginning the lesson, manipulatives were distributed and a few problems were solved using a step-by-step process. The lesson began with the teacher having volunteers solve new problems on the board. A class discussion was conducted meanwhile, in which they worked through the problems and discussed any misconceptions. The teacher encouraged feedback and had students assist with the incorrectly completed problems. Practice items from the text were then assigned and the students were encouraged to use their manipulatives to try to determine what the variables represented. As the students began to work and throughout the session, the teacher worked with groups of students who demonstrated specific concept knowledge difficulties.  As the session end approached, the teacher reviewed the steps taught to solve the problems. The students were supported in checking their work and to correct their mistakes along the way.

The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY), 2008 has analyzed several research studies and reported the methods of instruction found to be effective in teaching math concepts to students with disabilities. They reported that guiding students through a well-defined sequence of instruction from which they receive systematic, explicit instruction is the most effective instructional strategy. In addition, students need to be taught to manage their own learning after being given specific prompting. Students must also be given opportunities for peer tutoring and the use of manipulative or graphic representations of the concepts being taught.

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 2012 documents six principles for the instruction of mathematics. They include having high expectations for all learners, a coherent curriculum, use of prior knowledge and need to guide individualized instruction, building on known concepts, using assessment to drive instruction, and the use of technology for enhancing student learning. The teacher that I observed delivered instruction in a somewhat effective manner according to the experts. She included manipulatives and independent monitoring in her instructional procedures. She also included classroom communication about the math concepts. Additional attention could have been given to the details of the instructional sequence. The specific recommendations for the teacher would be to begin her lessons with instruction or review of the strategies, steps, mnemonics, or graphics that will be used in the step-by-step processes to solve the problems. In addition, instruction to support students in self-checking along the way would be recommended (Coyne, Kame’enui, and Carnine, 2011). A connection to previously learned concepts should also be included after teaching the lesson (NCTM, 2012).

The main challenging in working with math teachers to adapt new practices may be to convince them of the worth of the practice. If it is not valued, it may not be practiced consistently. Having a short and brief representation of the results of research may convince more teachers to buy into the changes recommended.

Coyne, M., Kame’enui, E., and Carnine, D. (2011). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (n.d.). Executive summary: principles and standards for school mathematics. Retrieved from http://www.nctm.org/uploadedfiles/math_standards/12752_exec_pssm.pdf

Steedly, K., Dragoo, K., Arafeh, S., and Luke, S. (2008). Effective mathematics instruction. Evidence for Education 3(1). Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/research/ee/math

Writing Instruction for Students with Disabilities Part 1

Three research-based strategies that focus on individual needs during writing instruction are using strategic integration, mediated scaffolding, and judicious review. Strategic integration means integrating specific, naturally grouped concepts in order to provide a holistic view of writing. This promotes a focus on big ideas according to Coyne et al. (2011). Mediated scaffolding should be offered according to students’ individual needs. An example given by Harris & Graham (2007), is that of providing direct instruction to target one step in the strategy using modeling, reminders, additional opportunities for practice, corrective feedback, and extra positive reinforcement.

In order to support the implementation of strategies for Students with Intellectual Disabilities  (IND) or Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), teachers may need to provide assistive technology, have a system for providing dictation, and provide space within the classroom and opportunities for collaboration (CEC, 2011). Modifications may also be required to make the assignment accessible. Depending on the intellectual or academic abilities of the students these supports may be needed in order to successfully participate in the writing activities. Students with Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) may benefit from extra positive feedback and opportunities with space to collaborate. Use of the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) is a research-based model that includes these elements. It is an effective model that includes strategies aimed at supporting student (Harris & Graham, 2007). Procedures should be posted and used in the daily writing routine. A highly structured, predictable routine will ensure smooth transitions and success.

Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders (EBD) may receive important benefits from the inclusion of quick writing tasks at the beginning, middle or end of their writing process lessons. The potential benefits include opportunities to make connections related to the writing process, practice for formal assessments, demonstrate content learning, strengthen fluency and quality, and increase attention to task (Mason, Kubina, Valasa, and Kramer, 2010)

Coyne, M., Kame’enui, E., and Carnine, D. (2011). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearso  n Education, Inc.

Harris, K & Graham S. (2007). Self-Regulated Strategy Development: A Validated Model to Support Students Who Struggle with Writing. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporaty Journal 5(1) 1-20. Retrieved from www.library.waldenu.edu

Mason L., Kubina, R, Valasa, L., and Cramer, A. (2010). Evaluating effective writing instruction for adolescent students in an emotional and behavior support setting. Behavioral Disorders 35(2). Retrieved from www.library.waldenu.edu

Council for Exceptional Children (2011). Strengthening the second “R”: instructional approaches that Improve Written Performance. Retrieved from https://class.waldenu.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?

Also visit my writing blog on Writer's Own Words Author's website.


For any specific questions, contact me at sfesped@gmail.com

Teaching Beginning Reading Skill to Students With Disabilities

Basics in Teaching Reading to Close Achievement Gaps

In teaching beginning reading skills to students with disabilities our ultimate goal is to equip them with the prerequisites that are necessary to engage and succeed in reading comprehension. It is important to be guided by the essential big ideas and match the students’ learning needs with the instruction. Coyne, Kame’enui, and Carnine (2011) reported that learning to read in the primary grades carry significant benefits for cognitive development and school success. The groundwork is laid for successfully engaging in a variety of texts. The big ideas that need to be taught are phonological awareness, alphabetic principle, and fluency. Deliberate and conspicuous strategies must be taught to help students become independent readers. This begins with choosing or developing adjusting the resources needed for teaching the specific skills. Scaffolding, connecting known skills with more complex skills, and providing ample review are also essential parts of the teaching process.

Teaching reading for content requires that the beginning reading skills be used to facilitate comprehension. Once students master the basic reading skills, they can be taught specialized strategies that will strengthen their reading comprehension abilities. Strategies should be taught to support readers before, during, and after reading. Some of the strategies that should be taught for use before reading are to review vocabulary words using mind mapping, identifying text structure, and making predictions about the theme after previewing the text. Some strategies for use during reading are questioning, identifying main ideas of paragraphs, and gauging comprehension to fix as needed (Berkeley, Scruggs, and Mastropieri, 2009). Finally, students should be taught strategies to use after reading as a part of good reading habits. These strategies include summarizing, retelling, and evaluating.

Each strategy should be taught explicitly by introducing the steps and scaffolding for retention. Offering opportunities for judicious review will solidify the strategies and help develop them as part of a repertoire of good reading habits. These reading instructional strategies were outlined in the study conducted by Graves, Brandon, Duesbery, McIntosh, and Pyle (2011), Using the criteria for research-based practices, it was determined that the strategies detailed in this study work to support students in becoming strategic, successful readers.

Coyne, M., Kame’enui, E., and Carnine, D. (2011). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
For any specific questions, contact me at sfesped@gmail.com